Advances in Thyroid Gland Regeneration: The Integrated Approach of Cell Biology and Bioengineering

The thyroid gland is an endocrine organ responsible for production of triiodothyronine and thyroxine, essentialhormones that regulate human metabolism. A wide range of conditions can impair its function, leading topotential life-threatening consequences such as myxedema coma. The standard treatment for hypothyroidismis lifelong levothyroxine supplementation, which, despite being a significant therapeutic breakthrough, hasnotable limitations and does not fully restore quality of life for many patients. Biomimetic thyroid gland hasemerged as a promising alternative treatment strategy for patients with hypothyroidism. Most research to datehas focused on generating thyroid organoids from primary thyroid cells or stem cells. However, there is grow-ing interest in other approaches, including the use of biomaterials, bioreactors, and 3D bioprinting as potentialalternatives or supplementary technologies to the organoids. While in vitro and preclinical studies have shownencouraging results, clinical application of biomimetic thyroid gland requires further studies in several keyareas, including long-term functional validation, studies on large animal models, immunological compatibilityand scaffold biodegradation, and absence of standardized good manufacturing practice (GMP)-compliant pro-duction protocols.