Application of modulated chlorophyll fluorescence and modulated chlorophyll fluorescence imaging to study the environmental stress effect

Chlorophyll (Chl) a fluorescence is a widely used tool to monitor the photosynthetic process in plants subjected to environmental stresses. this review reports the theoretical bases of Chl fluorescence, and the significance of the most important Chl fluorescence parameters. it also reports how these parameters can be utilised to estimate changes in photosystem (Ps) ii photochemistry, linear electron flux and dissipation mechanisms. the relation between actual Psii photochemistry and Co2 assimilation is discussed, as is the role of photochemical and non-photochemical quenching in inducing changes in Psii activity. the application of Chl fluorescence imaging to study heterogeneity on leaf lamina is also considered. this review summarises only some of the results obtained by this methodology to study the effects of different environmental stresses, namely water availability, nutrients, pollutants, temperature and salinity.